Digital Beat

Do Digital Inclusion Initiatives Have Any Impact?

Insights from a systematic review of 32 empirical studies

The recent surge in digital inclusion initiatives at the local, state, and federal levels has sparked increased interest among researchers and policymakers in evaluating their impact on the communities they aim to serve. Further, the growing array of programs and the solutions offered—such as subsidized broadband, digital literacy training, and digital navigation support—provide valuable opportunity to examine how these interventions affect communities and individuals who have historically lacked reliable broadband access or did not consistently use it. Additionally, with billions of dollars appropriated to establish initiatives to promote digital equity and inclusion, a review of existing evidence on how effectively programs achieved their goals can provide insights for designing and implementing more effective and sustainable digital inclusion efforts. A note of caution is due here, however, given that the articles reviewed are limited to those published in English Language between 2019 and April 2024.

Are Digital Inclusion Initiatives Bridging the Digital Divide?

Bridging the Geographical Divide

Although the digital divide is a global phenomenon, past research has established that emerging economies are more likely to face significant barriers in access, adoption, and use of broadband. According to the International Telecommunication Union, in 2023, 93 percent of individuals in high-income countries used the internet, compared to 81 percent in upper-middle-income countries, 55 percent in lower-middle-income countries, and 27 percent in low-income countries. However, the articles in the sample suggest that the research on the impact of digital equity initiatives is concentrated in high-income countries. The majority of the articles (73%) investigated initiatives in the United States. Of the eight articles that examined initiatives outside the United States, five focused on high-income countries, two on upper-middle-income countries, and one on a lower-middle-income country. This finding may be taken to indicate that higher-income countries are investing significantly more in digital inclusion initiatives compared to lower-income countries or may reflect an underrepresentation in the research.

Connecting the Covered Populations

In 2021, Congress passed the Digital Equity Act which defined the groups that digital inclusion efforts should prioritize, called the “covered populations,” and includes veterans, low-income families, people with disabilities, people with low literacy, English learners, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and incarcerated individuals. The leading covered population represented in the research is low-income populations—in just under half of the studies (45%)—closely followed by seniors (in 21% of articles) and rural residents (in 18% of the articles). Veterans and those who are justice-impacted are not represented in the research. Some articles researched initiatives that targeted groups that are omitted from the covered populations—such as women, K-12 students and their parents, and refugees and immigrants—raising intriguing questions regarding if critical groups are currently omitted from the “covered populations.”

Outputs, Outcomes, and Impacts

The literature on the impact of digital inclusion initiatives is categorized using the logic model framework of outputs, outcomes, and impacts.

Program Outputs: Although earlier work found that that the majority of digital equity organizations evaluate their programs using outputs measures, this is not reflected in recent research. Of the 32 studies reviewed, only two investigated program outputs—defined as quantifiable immediate products or services—such as program participation, number of training hours completed, and number of devices distributed. Reporting only absolute numbers of program outputs without a discussion about the target population somewhat limits the understanding of the results. Overall, the findings suggest significant uptake in digital inclusion programs, with one study reporting over 60 percent participation in a statewide program among eligible families.

Program Outcomes: Over two-thirds of the articles (22 papers) examined short- to medium-term effects, categorized into broadband adoption, digital literacy, user experiences, and increased use of the internet for economic, health, and education tasks. The research presented mixed results on the impact of digital inclusion initiatives on broadband adoption and digital literacy using various measures such as changes in broadband adoption rates, technophobia, and misinformation identification. Some studies suggest that the initiatives improve broadband adoption rates, particularly among low-income unconnected households. In contrast, other studies find no evidence of increased adoption or report that initiatives led to plan changes among already connected households, sometimes resulting in lower-speed plans. Interestingly, there is extensive evidence that digital literacy programs enhance participants’ skills, particularly among seniors. However, there is no evidence that informal help, for example, from unpaid caregivers, improves digital literacy skills.

Program Impacts: Just under a third of the studies (9 articles) examined broader program impacts—the ultimate and often systemic changes caused by the program—which are categorized into economic, health, education, and social impacts. Surprisingly, all five studies that assessed economic impacts—such as change in employment rate, income, and improved farm sales—reported positive results across varied contexts. On the other hand, the findings on health benefits were mixed. While one study found improved neuropsychological outcomes in older adults who participated in a digital literacy training, other studies found no evidence of improved quality of life or reduced loneliness among older adults in a similar program.

Implications for Practice and Research

Ongoing research is essential to understand and improve the effectiveness of digital inclusion initiatives in reducing the digital divide. Although a variety of studies demonstrated that digital inclusion initiatives have a positive impact on the digital divide, others report negative effects or no impact. As entities continue work to advance digital equity within their communities, evaluating the broader impact of their programs is paramount. There is a need for more research to understand the impact within emerging economies and the subset of digitally vulnerable communities that are underrepresented in the research. Investigation into how program design and offerings affect the efficacy of the program is strongly recommended.

See the Full Article: Ogbo-Gebhardt, E. (2025). The Impact of Digital Inclusion Initiatives: A Systematic Review. Proceedings of the 58th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 6741-6750. https://hdl.handle.net/10125/109654

Dr. Erezi Ogbo-Gebhardt is an assistant professor in Information Science and the program director of Online and Extended Studies at the School of Library and Information Science (SLIS). She is a nationally recognized digital inclusion scholar. She uses mixed methods to investigate the socio-economic and socio-technological factors that impact broadband and digital technology acceptance, use, and impact of use, predominantly among marginalized populations and communities often underrepresented in technology research. Her work also evaluates the broader impact of digital inclusion initiatives (e.g., subsidized broadband or digital literacy training) on the recipient

The Benton Institute for Broadband & Society is a non-profit organization dedicated to ensuring that all people in the U.S. have access to competitive, High-Performance Broadband regardless of where they live or who they are. We believe communication policy - rooted in the values of access, equity, and diversity - has the power to deliver new opportunities and strengthen communities.

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